Communication Strategies

Italy is one of the Schengen countries of the world. It is located in the Southern Europe and comprises the population of 58,057,477 (July 2004). The government is Republic and the capital city is Rome. Italian is the native language and 93 population is native Italian speakers. The religious ethics believed in Italy are Roman, Catholic, Jewish and Muslim immigrant community. Italian culture has significant approach towards business, education, society, personal meetings, family values and so on (Kwintessential).

Approach to Business
Italians believe in dealing business activities with people who are quite familiar and trustworthy to them. It is essential to be devoted in business dealings and much time should be spent in Italy in order to develop good business relationships with other ventures. Italians perceive a persons personality and attributes as the most important aspect before initiating business relationship. Direct communication and introduction is a leading source for immediate business growth because the reference from third party may consume much time for an Italian Businessmen to entrust a new entrepreneur in business transactions (Kwintessential).

It is a wise saying that first impression is the last impression and thus, the same is conceived by Italians as judgment of a person through demeanor. It becomes necessary for business professionals working in Italy to prove his honesty, inclination and enthusiasm in every aspect of business dealing which can encourage Italian colleagues to trust, like and support them. Business communication in Italy is practiced far away on routine basis which involves full-time personal contacts therefore, smooth communication needs to be performed on frequent intervals as it will help in developing good personal relationships. A respectful approach towards a meeting person and good wishes for their family should too be conveyed accordingly. Expressive communication is inherent in Italians which represents facial and hand gestures in expressing their intention and conception (Kwintessential).

Approach to Education
Italians believe education as a very dominant aspect of life which envisages from compulsory and free education for children aged from 6-16 years. The education system is classified into five grades such as Kindergarten  Playgroup (Scuola Maternal), Elementary School (Scuola Elementare), Middle School (Scuola Media), High School (Liceo) and University (Universita) (Italiamia).

Italys educational system is comprised of both private as well as public standards and is quite developed and ahead of Germany and UK education systems. Many universities have too been developed in Italy which emphasize on the postgraduate education. One of these universities includes University of Bologna which was founded in ca. 1088 and has been recognized as the oldest university in the Western World. Another university is the La Sapienza University in Rome which is the biggest university in Italy (Paluello, 79).

Education System in Italy was established through Legge Casati (Casati Act) in 1859. The primary mission of the act was to develop the learning needs of children and diminish illiteracy rate. The responsibilities of primary education were designated to the single towns secondary education was managed by the provinces and the education for the universities was mandated by the state. This commanding system proved quite worth for Italian education system. During the power of Mussolini and his Partito Nazionale Fascista in 1923, another act Legge Gentile was passed for streamlining the Italian Education System. This act mandated the 14 years as the compulsory age for getting education. This act too grants an opt of promotion in educational stages which means one could get access to Middle School after completing five years in primary education which could further be developed up to High School grade level (Italiamia).

Conclusion
It is crystal clear and worth defining the Italians Culture towards Business and Education which is quite impressive and visualizes dominancy over business ethics and education system and is, indeed, much impressive to appreciate on. Italian business ethics must be mandated in a modern ear today which will play a vital role in entrusting business professional in a cultural way. Italian education system must too be regulated in todays world which will eliminate illiteracy among new generation and will surely develop a fresh, long and a happy life for every human being in the country.

A. Introduction
The purpose of this assignment is to critically evaluate the much talked about farewell address to Congress by Douglas MacArthur on April 19, 1951. This analysis takes into account the goals of the speaker and the rhetoric used by the speaker to convey meaning and value to its target audiences. Born in Little Rock, Arkansas, Douglas MacArthur was educated at West Point Military Academy. He gained extensive fame through his military activities in the Pacific during World War II and the cold war. He rose through the military ranks with each military prowess and successful campaigns.

B. Historical Background
When America joined World War I in 1917, Douglas MacArthur was sent to France where he distinguished himself. He remained Chief of Staff of the American Army from 1930 to 1935.  In World War II, after the attack on Pearl Harbor, he was put in charge of the Philippines where he had to defend the islands against the attack by the Japanese. Although he failed at the beginning, he later took on a strategy known as island-hopping (Carpenter 1). This then provided the capacity for him to bounce back from the hurdle and recapture the Philippines from the Japanese after 3 years of occupation. It was predicted that American casualties would be high and President Truman ordered the use of the atomic bomb on Hiroshima and Nagasaki (Cumings, Abrahamian, and Maoz). As Supreme Commander of Allied forces in the Pacific, MacArthur used his influence as head of the occupation forces to gain the favor of Emperor Hirohito. By this time, politicians and forces in America disliked the power MacArthur had accrued for himself. After the involvement in World War II, MacArthur remained in the limelight as head of the United Nations. He further displayed his military prowess and enhanced his stature much to the annoyance of others. His downfall began when time and time again he embarked on a series of insubordination acts. The ultimatum for him to be relieved of his command came in 1951 when he protested against the failure of President Truman to give him orders to destroy the bridges that crossed the Yalu River (Willoughby and Chamberlain 295-296).
MacArthur returned home to the largest parade in US history. He presented his case to a joint session of
Congress on April 19, 1951 which attracted a tremendous radio and television audience. It is a true fact that no soldier had been more admired as a national hero than Douglas MacArthur.

C. Goals of the Speaker
Analyzing the goals of the speaker, it can be seen that the purpose of MacArthur speech seeks to argue about his position concerning what has happened in the military. His manner of talking with the crowd provides opportunities for listeners to be captivated and appreciate his choice of words, value and decisions, and the relevance of his remarks during his time. This then provided corresponding analyses in determining his purpose in the way MacArthur conveys towards his target audiences.

As a speaker, Douglas MacArthur has extremely high ethos. Having been a military man all his life, he is extremely comfortable and delivers his speech with authority. This is especially evident when he states the following line general truisms, I shall confine my discussion. Although he appears solemn and has a grave expression most of the time, he manages for almost thirty-seven minutes to deliver his speech to an audience that practically laps up his every word. This speech provided an opportunity for him to tell his side of the story and he did not want to waste it nor disappoint his audience. He intended to show conviction and succeeded especially when he says, I address you with neither rancor nor bitterness in the fading twilight of light, with but one purpose in mind to serve my country. He probably wanted to show that he did not hold any grudges.

His speech was also primarily praised for values and attitudes which audiences held dear. In here, he was able to highlight the values that make America special and the capacity of these corresponding principles to drive the necessary elements towards change.  This is especially so when he says, this forum of legislative debate represents human liberty in the purest form yet devised and in statements such as while Asia is commonly referred to as the Gateway to Europe, it is no less true that Europe is the Gateway to Asia, and the broad influence of the one cannot fail to have its impact upon the other.

The lack of gesticulation or body language only reminds us that he does not try to impress. In essence, he still holds the capacity to show his authority and maturity both as a speaker and leader. In here, he allows his experience do the talking and does not need any body gestures in order to make his point or justify his objectives. His theatrical presence itself does the amazing wonders. He appears genuine and almost pitiful when he remarks, I called for reinforcements but was informed that reinforcements were not available.  This is further heightened by the accusation, It has been said, in effect, that I was a warmonger.

At the same time, MacArthurs speech also provides his ability to make predictions in the future. In particular, he uses this objective in order to create and develop a particular mindset towards Americans over a specific course of action or endeavor. Here he is very effective in instilling fear when he remarks, If we will not devise some greater and more equitable system, Armageddon will be at our door. Indirectly, he also gets back at President Truman and his enemies at Washington when he says, Wars very object is victory, not prolonged indecision (qtd. in Finn 32-33). This then brings about the current capacity to recognize that his speech derives the ability to change and look for means to achieve it. At the same time, this means that MacArthur values prompt action and initiative instead of just pointing out what people needs to do.

Towards the end of his speech, he says, I have just left your fighting sons in Korea. Audiences listening would probably go home with the impression that he was truly not at fault and he had not deserted the Army. Throughout his campaigns, he has increasingly showed dedication and value towards preserving American interests. Though his actions were sometimes considered to be radical and out of context, MacArthur did this to provide effective means to further the protection of peace and stability around the world.

This again was a success to him as his goal was probably to shift the blame to the President and the politicians who were envious of his power and authority. This capacity to showcase such direction became essential in attaining his goals. Despite the lack of support from his military superiors and even the President of the country where he serves, MacArthur gained the respect, admiration, and trust of the people which remains to be essential especially during the latter days of his life.  When he finally closes his speech with the phrase, I now close my military career and just fade away, an old soldier who tried to do his duty he successfully comes across as a warm and genuine yet unappreciated individual who sacrificed his life for the country.

D. Rhetorical Barriers
Despite his oratorical prowess, MacArthurs speech comes across as rather unconvincing. He was in a room full of not just passive listeners who would let him get away but officers who were waiting to bombard him with their accusations. Since he was relieved from the military due to acts of insubordination, this speech can also serve as a ground for finding and determining seditious remarks that may be destructive to the government. The complexity of the issue at hand further made this task of having to convince a harder one. It was one mans word against the rest. In here, MacArthur felt constrained in furthering his goals and objectives accordingly.

Another rhetorical barrier that hindered the achievement of MacArthurs objectives revolves around his capacity to provide justification for his arguments. Here, it concentrated in the concept of validity and sought to express such idea in a more exploratory tone. The audience was probably familiar with his oratorical flamboyance and needed more evidence of conviction to stay on his side of the argument. This direction can then create better appreciation and further the objective and limit the occurrence of historical barriers accordingly.

E. Rhetorical Strategies
MacArthur uses well crafted words even when he is indirectly chiding the President and his enemies. Throughout his speech, we notice that he is austere, almost appearing rather aloof. The phrase, an old soldier who tried to do his duty captured the audiences attention.  His articulation of apt sentences when appropriate to enhance his stature as a military leader reveals him as a rhetorically sensitive individual who is willing to tolerate the hardship of adaptation during the period of war. His listeners eagerly waited to hear his rational arguments on why timely decisions had to be taken in the wake of war. Seeing this, one essential aspect of MacArthurs rhetorical strategy revolves around the ability to choose effective themes to convey value and meaning to the American audiences

The style of delivery as well as the somber tone of further heightens the essence of his speech. Descriptive clauses such as the hopes and dreams have long since vanished is interspersed with old soldiers never die, they just fade away, when taken together, draws on the audiences emotions and gets away with clich almost with great ease and success. Given his ability to draw out emotions among audiences, he uses his tone and voice to create impact among listeners. Here, he draws out emotions coming from his experiences, encounters and personal beliefs that are relevant to the audience and listeners.

F. Effectiveness
 Despite his idiosyncrasies, MacArthur was almost never lost for choice and apt words. As mentioned by Charles Burton Marshall of the New Republic, Fancy language came to him like Cherokee to Cherokee. He almost always is able to impress his audience with his spoken words, although in this particular incident, he may have misjudged the audience. By effectively touching on the values and sentiments of the people, he is seen in a favorable light. This farewell speech was to a certain extent persuasive in nature as he tried to get the audience to see it from his point of view. However, if he had been careful and not been too liberal with his accusations, he would have at least saved himself from any embarrassment. As reiterated by Marshall, this address also tarnished his reputation as it served to heighten the significance of Trumans dismissal of him as well as crystallize some issues that were of longstanding significance to the American foreign policy.

This means that the dismissal of MacArthur until he provided this speech clearly becomes the motivation of this speech. Here, the choice of becoming acquainted with the changes within American foreign policy is ever increasing. However, his limitations to adapt according to these trends justify the necessary inputs and qualms surrounding his speech and his removal from his position. It can be argued that this remain to be the primary motivation shaping his perspective and views concerning American culture and the current struggle of many families in the Korean War.

Nevertheless, while MacArthurs speech lacks persuasiveness, it is still relatively successful in the short term. This can be seen in the context of the Presidents radio speech announcing the dismissal of MacArthur. When both these speech sets are taken into consideration, it is evident that MacArthur gained ground for his oratorical prowess rather than the convincing nature of his argument. Although he had not exposed any flaws in his reasoning, the series of witnesses that followed him certainly did. As shared by D. Clayton and other historians, the general public expected President Truman to explain his action of dismissing MacArthur, but he failed to do so. This naturally swayed the cards in favor of MacArthur but this was short lived.

Given such analysis, it clearly illustrates how ones capacity to induce the crowd eventually fades away after the hype is over. It demonstrates the limited ability of MacArthur to justify his permanence in his speeches. Indeed it can be argued that he is considered to be one of the most influential persons in the 20th century. However, his work would not only be credited in his successful military strategies but also his ability to induce his views in a less persuasive manner.

Given these ideas, the nature of his MacArthurs speech directs attention to his past and previous achievements. It illustrates the last chance of one man to provide an impact to the citizenry and country that he has served through the years. The values and valor he has showcased then becomes the highlight of his ideas. Such dynamics then provided the necessary needs to establish influence and permanence to his work. As observed by another historian, David McCullough, There was nothing bland about him, nothing passive about him, nothing dull about him. Theres no question about his patriotism, theres no question about his courage, and theres no question, it seems to me about his importance as one of the protagonists of the 20th Century. The speech then became the last show for the General who had fought many wars and succeeded in becoming a legend and important person in history to be talked about for many years to come. But now everything must come to an end. MacArthurs biographer James writes, By the time, Marshall and the Joint chiefs were finished, MacArthurs strategic thinking, for the first time in his career, had been torn to shreds not by liberal correspondents or politicians but by the top four officers of the American military establishment (MacArthur Archives qtd. in Cumings)

G. Conclusion
As a military commander, MacArthur was an icon of what a perfect officer should be. He was not only intelligent but had a great amount of integrity and charisma. Apparently, he failed to realize that he was but only a dice in the game plan. President Truman wanted a reliable commander on the scene should America decide to use nuclear weapons and not another President-wanna-be in the making. If only he had served that very purpose, he would not have endangered national interest nor tarnished his rock solid reputation as a commander. But nevertheless he had to do what he thinks is necessary. His actions and responses are all recorded in history and contributes to how much we can understand the inspiration towards his specific actions.

The analysis of his speech clearly illustrates this distinction. It shows one proud soldier who have sought to showcase deep loyalty to the preservation of peace, stability, and democracy to the rest of the world. Though he may lack the necessary persuasiveness in his speeches, his ability to convey themes and big words provided the motivation to create better patterns that allow his views and ideals to be imparted effectively to his target audiences. These realities then became the basis for understanding his views and points in MacArthurs speech.

In the end, these analyses provide better insights to understand the mindset and emotions of a person. It opens up doors to gain information and let everyone appreciate his significance and worth. As Shakespeare reminds us, big wars make ambition a virtue. It is an undeniable truth that Douglas MacArthur was indeed one of the most interesting and important figures of the century (277-78). Unfortunately, true to his very words, the old soldier faded away from public eye. He lived quietly in New York until his death in 1964.

The worlds diabetes day is celebrated on November 14 of every year and is a campaign led by members of International Diabetes Federation. The federation was created in 1991 by World Health Organization (WHO) in response to a rise in diabetes globally. In 2007, the World Diabetes Day became an official celebration in United Nations (Umesh, 12).

The campaign for the past period has addressed the growing need for diabetes prevention measures and education. Diabetes is one of the major diseases that have seen several people lose their lives. People in different regions consider this diseases as a major threat until several lives are lost. Many individuals fail to acknowledge the threat posed by diabetes to individuals, families and the entire community.

Communication objectives
The main reason for launching the campaign is to sensitize everyone to understand diabetes and enlighten individuals on the best measures of control. Every person is supposed to take the appropriate measures to ensure that they avail themselves for the campaign during this particular day. It is important for every person to acknowledge the importance of the meeting since it is the only way to teach people about the consequences of the disease.

Diabetes has claimed lives of many individuals due to lack of knowledge and perhaps attending such campaigns is instrumental. Various clinical officers are usually available during this particular day to provide clarification and offer medical services. Any person who fails to attend such crucial campaigns is entitled to provide a clear communication about his or her absence. The government and private sector are very much willing and concerned to enlighten individuals about the preventive measures to this killer disease.

The campaign slogan is empowerment through education for those people with diabetes and for governments it is to implement effective strategies that aim at preventing the disease. In the case of health care professionals, the slogan is to improve knowledge so as to put recommendations into practice. The campaign slogan for the general public is a call to understand the negative impact of diabetes and know how to avoid diabetes. The campaign is a measure on the effects of diabetes in both young and old generation and its implications in future generation.

World Diabetes Day campaign aims at conveying the message that access to proper medication is a fundamental basic right for every child. Today, Friday April 10, International Diabetes Federation is pleased to bring together key opinion leaders with the objective of pushing for appropriate measures that aims at securing care for many children with diabetes. Most developing countries have the challenge of providing adequate measures to children and adults with diabetes. At the end of the campaign, I would like to make the lives of many desperate individuals living with diabetes more comfortable.

Target audience
The campaign aims at reaching mothers and children below age ten who are living below poverty line in developing nations. Experts in matters of health from different organizations have been invited to deliver the message on how to control diabetes. International Diabetes Federation estimates that about 78,000 children from developing nations are living with diabetes. This is a threat to the future of children who are in desperate need of medication and information about diabetes. It is uncertain that both the young and elderly mothers are faced with a problem that can be prevented.

Key message to the target audience
Ignorance and lack of information are two main factors that have led to a rise in diabetes. The patients need insulin to safe their lives and they also need test trips, monitoring equipment and education to manage their diabetes. The most important part of this campaign is to coordinate different health unions that will ensure there is worldwide sensitization about the effects of diabetes.

A professional group of stakeholders come together this great day to discus the way forward on the interim humanitarian response that aims at saving lives and laying down a framework for sustainable solutions. Among the most prominent invitees are officials from the ministry of Health, leaders from pharmaceutical industry, and experts in supply chain management, official World Diabetes Day partners and philanthropic founders.

Professional societies that provide education and paediatrics in education are also invited to give their opinion in relation to this health problem.  Every individual is invited to contribute in any aspect of health matters that helps to curb diabetes (Umesh, 26). Children and people living with diabetes in the society can be helped by individuals within the surrounding and that person is you. Help every community member by providing the necessary information that is adequate to fight diabetes.

Communication mix
External communications mix such as press, public relations media, advertising, branding and print are among the best method considered throughout this campaign. The  use of press will include press release on the importance of diabetes education and prevention measures. Electronic gargets such as radio and television are also considered as favorites. In the event certain individuals may not have time to attend meetings, the government is concerned to produce a number of brochures that provide important information about education and prevention measures on diabetes. This step ensures that every individual is reached despite distance, commitments or geographical location. Below is a sample of information in brochures about the importance of diabetes education and prevention measures.

The importance of diabetes education
Diabetes is a very difficult disease to deal with because it is very hard to detect a patient with such condition. Diabetes imposes life-long complications to people with such condition and their families. Management of diabetes requires individual commitment and this is the reason that has led to increased cases of diabetes. A person living with diabetes may live for a period of five years without noticing any change until a time when the condition becomes worse.

Diabetes education aims at enlightening individuals to monitor their blood glucose, adjust their eating habits, exercise regularly and take proper medication. Another aspect of diabetes education during the campaign is to make people with diabetes make necessary psychological adjustments (Umesh, 53). It is important for individuals with diabetes to receive high quality diabetes education that is centered to their needs.
Education tailored towards the needs of people with diabetes is delivered by skilled health professionals. It is the fundamental right of every individual to access diabetes education for all people with such killer disease. The World Diabetes Day campaign aims at providing basic education to individuals with diabetes and the entire public. The education is very necessary and parents are supposed to ensure their children are the chief campaigners in this historical event.

The need for prevention of diabetes
Prevention is better than cure and every individual is entitled to participate fully in measures that help to prevent rise of diabetes. However, type 1 diabetes cannot be prevented because insulin producing cells are completely destroyed. In many cases, type 2 diabetes can be prevented through application of various measures. The campaign is a very important tool that will ensure there are proper measures of maintaining healthy weight and encouraging patients to take regular exercises. World Diabetes Day campaign is essential because it will create awareness of risk factors associated with diabetes and encourage individuals to take the best practices that helps to prevent diabetes.

The United Nations has invited all health international organizations, member states, and relevant organizations of United Nations system, non-governmental organizations and the civil society to observe World Diabetes Day in a proper manner so as to raise public awareness about the related complications related to diabetes. Public relations, media and marketing strategies will help the public to communicate important information about prevention, care and treatment of diabetes (Umesh, 69).  The mass media is one of the most common methods that will help the public to receive important information about diabetes.

Internal communication mix such as conference calls is another measure of passing information to people with diabetes. This method aims at reaching the entire public and it is one of the most effective methods of communication. The government therefore is calling on all citizens to attend a conference meeting during this particular day. Citizens will come face-to-face with health officials to get clarification on particular issues that have been problem. People will get tested for free so as to establish the number of people living with diabetes.

Key Terms
This paper explains four key terms in detail and ponders upon the concept behind each one of them. These four key terms include Sign, Ideology, Taking the role of the other and Validity Claim.

Sign
Peirce is the originator of the term sign. According to him there are three states of mind which include firstly feeling, which represents the emotional experience one goes through when not asleep and has a presence inside his or her mind Reaction, which takes place when one is presented with an external stimuli that triggers some sort of an action or the feeling of acting upon something, or wanting to act upon something Thinking, which is the process through which a person makes sense of the stimuli around him or her presented to him in the form of situations, people or things  this being the transition between ignorance and knowledge.

Sign, according to Peirce is one of the three kinds of interest a person is capable of developing whereby something makes an entrance into the mind with the aim of conveying a meaning or an idea of something. The other two interests besides Sign include primary and secondary interest. No one apart from humans can do what these signs do for them because Peirce regards this as an important component in acquiring knowledge.

The significance of Signs can be gauged from the communication strategies we adopt in our lives through the inclusion of semiotics. Semiotics, as Peirce said involves both signs that we make use of in our everyday speech as well as anything that stands for something else. Signs play a huge significance since they can take the shape of sounds, images, words, gestures as well as objects. In our social life, signs play a huge role because a sign can stand for something to someone in some capacity or respect, in a way that communication is actually made possible by making meaningful communication. Signs hence include semantics, syntax as well as pragmatics. Peirce has discussed Sign as having within it three types or three states, these being the topic of discussion in this part of the paper.

Likenesses
This type of Sign relates to the pictorial representation of things that indicate something knowledgeable to the naked eye because of the mere fact that there is resemblance in the way two or more figures or drawings have in common. Therefore, it can be a safe surmise to assume that due to the physical connection between two similar pictorial objects, there is resemblance between them because the objects were drawn (example) in a way as to actually correlate with something naturally present in the space around them. Due to the presence of these objects besides one other it is safe to assume that they belong to the area under one single umbrella of ideas.

Indications
In order to convey meaning to another person it is important to analyze the bigger picture through indications given by the subject speaker when describing what he wants to say. These indications even though come later into the picture form an immensely important part of the transaction so as to completely transfer what was intended to be sent to the receiver. This type of a sign hence points toward having references in the communication process we indulge in. In order to jolt the memory both short and long-term it is important that the element of indication as a sign is present.

Symbols
In order to identify things around us it is essential that words are used to represent the connection in meaning of the idea being talked about. Hence, any physical and non-tangible object or word can be proclaimed a symbol if it achieves the role of conveying a connection between things.

Ideology
The German Ideology was created by Karl Marx and Fredrick Engles (1846). It revolves around dominant ideas of that age, which Marx points out are the interests of the ruling class primarily. It represents the modern semiotic theory. The mere fact that humans exist forms the First Premise in the history of mankind which progresses into the way of living. This includes the many forms of ownership  Ownership through tribal activities including agriculture, hunting and fishing Ownership (communal) through slavery and having property and finally Ownership through feudalism and capital.

The German ideology transcends into the conception of society through times, by far with the inclusion of many tires in the societal pyramid. The civil society is responsible for the material well-being and use of resources for productive development. Liberation, another aspect in this ideology pertains to further development of society within the material approach through advancement in industrial development, commercial activities as well as agricultural units. This phase is responsible for the commercial and societal enlargement and advancement according to Marx. Thirdly, there is also the talk of a ruling class which in every era raises ruling ideas to be followed by the rest. This class has power because of having ownership of materials both tangible  commercial, agricultural etc. and intangible  loyalty, respect and honor. German Ideology therefore comprises of the division of labor (both material and mental like the division of town and country) the rise in manufacturing through introduction of the element of competition and trade activities and the connection between State to property through laws.
Significance of the German Ideology even in todays world is immense since his analysis of capitalism still can be seen to be used to the benefit of many countries. His work also has been declared controversial by many who are anti-capitalist and pro-socialist. The German Ideology needs to be read and experienced by everyone due to its significance that seems high even today. We cannot change the world unless it is properly understood and Marxs work  - The German Ideology helps us understand the underpinnings of society which enable us to learn deeper the cause of many problems we have to confront today.

Taking the Role of the other
Mead, G. H. (1939), has done work on the mind, self and society wherein he has talked about taking the role of the other. He says that as an individual realizes of his consciousness towards his own ideas and mental processes, he or she attains consciousness of other individuals as well. Taking the Role of the other pertains to the social foundation with respect to thought and communication by identification of oneself, identification of someone else, identification of self with another entity as well as realizing ones consciousness about oneself through that entity. All this according to Mead (1939) is made possible because of the element of communication in the process. Role taking according to Mead (1939) hence occurs through the developmental process of identifying with the other in a way that it actually becomes a behavioral set that can be scientifically studied.

For the self to develop, it is essential that role of the other is taken upon oneself to define behavior from the viewpoint of others around us. This is a process that helps in the intellectual development of the self as one goes through periods of imitation (as in infants), play-acting (as in children) and generalizing resulting into the self going through subsequent changes and transformations.

Mead (1939) talks about dependency upon individuals that other individuals have to enable themselves to function as intelligent social beings for which the importance of taking someones elses role becomes necessary. Another significance of this key term is that it helps us interact in social settings as we apply rationality to the interactional process we indulge in. It is only by generalizing the other can we actually think properly and understand the system we live in. The significance of this key term is huge since we know it is appropriate responses of others that will keep the communication process intact making communication possible in the first place. We interpret messages sent to us and if we do not think in the other persons shoes, we are not making use of an effective communication strategy since the probability of not getting a coherent response goes down in the absence of taking the role of others.

Validity Claim
Habermas originated the term validity claims. He talks about validity claims in communication by indicating that language forms a centre-point through which realization of worldly objectives and social objectives takes place. This passing through according to the philosopher forms three relations to reality, these being firstly, the representation of facts secondly, forming valid interpersonal linkages and lastly communicating subjective ideas. Language has two kinds of orientations, one with communication itself through the dimension of validity and the other with the revelation and admission of truth  meaning.

There are four kinds of validity claims according to Habermas, these being  comprehensible (graspable and understandable), truth (of existential and non existential factors), normative rightness (apposition of thought, norms and ideas) and truthfulness (faithfulness, accuracy and sincerity). Peirce too follows the works of Habermas as the former supports the validity claim that learning takes place through having ones expectations disappointed. The four validity claims cannot be reduced to one single factor or element as each is fundamental in its own right and hence different from the other.

There is immense significance in communication of Validity Claims as well. Through its use, the course of communication becomes smooth as the communicators display the practical meaning of their message intelligently as they acknowledge the truth behind the proposition made and as they recognize the normative rightness of the norm being discussed so as to not doubt the sincerity of the other speaker. Validity claim render communication justified and results into a obliquely produced agreement.

In explaining persuasive messages nature in relation to manipulation and ethics, the definition of the terms manipulative and unethical should be considered first. Second, the context of what is being said and how the audience relate to the message being delivered. Being manipulative is generally defined as adept in influencing or controlling others to ones own advantage while unethical on the other hand refers to the non-conformation to approved standards of social or professional behaviour. To add, persuasion is referred to as the act of influencing the mind towards some idea, object, event, or other persons, by using written or spoken words to convey information, feelings, or reason, or a combination of them.

Given these definitions of the terms, I may have to say that persuasion, in business messages do not make one manipulative, moreover unethical. If the viewpoint of audience is in contrast with the message being given, then it may be regarded as manipulative as it would attempt to influence to catch the audiences attention to the firms advantage, so to speak. However, it becomes unethical when the speakerwriter tries to instil to the audience a certain belief andor principle that could damage the ones personality and social disposition and character. One example of which is to explicitly, andor implicitly, saying that ...our products and services can beat 99.9 of all offers from (name of a brandcompany), with which they do not have any way to debate with that numerous testimonials given to us by people of all ages.

This certain sentence conveys unethical messages and actions, not to mention manipulative. Persuasion in business messages must convey meanings that are based on facts and honesty. Taking an action through persuasion is a big way to get, not only the minds, but also the hearts of the consumers.

The paper discusses various aspects of intercultural communication. Communication is the act of exchanging information between one person to another or between groups of people. Communication between people of different cultures is therefore referred to as intercultural communication. For effective intercultural communication, there is need to be conversant with your own culture and other cultures.

Communication is the process of creating and sharing information between two or more people. With the increasing development in technology, transportation and movement of people from one place to another, the world is being transformed into a small village therefore it is very important to understand how each culture communicates. To be able to achieve adequate intercultural communication, it is important to know how different cultures communicate (Deborah, 2004).

Communication styles within cultures differ depending on how authority is shared within cultural organizations. There are two types of organizations which are hierarchical and democratic. In hierarchical organization, the power is vested on the highest leader in the organization while in a democratic power is distributed evenly among the members of the community (Han, Epp, Lee,  Hasjim, 2008).

Development of culture of mankind took many years and during this time it changed from one form to another. Culture keeps on changing and therefore never static. Culture keeps on developing, spreading from one region to another and from one generation to the next. In the process of cultural development, new materials and cultural wealth are incorporated. With the current globalization, most states in the world are involved in redefining national trademark and citizenship, and are exposing multiculturalism to extreme analysis and censure (Guffey, Rogin,  Rhodes, 2009).

The word culture is derived from a Latin word cultura which means stemming from, or colore to mean cultivate in reference to the land. During the period of middle age, it was used to refer to the methods of growing corn therefore the word agriculture emerged (Jennifer, 2003). Later on the word was used to refer to people, and people who exhibited graceful societal behaviors were said to be cultural. Currently the word has numerous meaning. Some of the meanings include informal rules, various stereotypes and norms of behavior. It can also be used to mean a whole product of an individual, group, or society of intelligent people (Deborah, 2004).

People who live separately create different culture with varied cultural features. Culture of every community is created and learned. Every generation creates culture and passes it down to the next coming generation. Culture keeps on changing and this can be as a result of new inventions, and contact with people from other cultures. Through learning various cultures, one can adapt to any part of the world. Every culture has their own boundaries and this does not imply that people from different cultures cannot interact and understand one another. Through cultural knowledge, people from different cultural backgrounds are able to accept actions of each other (Verhelst, 1994).

Dimensions of culture
These are most of the times psychological dimensions or value structures which can be used in identifying a specific culture. These dimensions are frequently used in intercultural communication or cross cultural communication. Dimensions of culture include individualism, formality, communication styles, context, and time orientation (Han, Epp, Lee,  Hasjim, 2008).

Context It is the most important dimension of culture and it is not easy to describe. It was developed by cultural anthropologists Edward T. Hall. In his model, context means stimuli, surrounding, or ambient surrounding an event (Guffey, Rogin,  Rhodes, 2009). Communicators in low context cultures such as those in Scandinavia and North America do not rely on the context of the situation to express their meaning. They think that their listeners do not have much knowledge on what they are saying therefore they say everything. In high context culture like Japan, the communicators believe that their listeners have much information therefore there is no need to offer much information (Deborah, 2004).

Individualism Individualism refers to the feelings of independence and freedom from control. People from low context cultures value individualism. They believe that initiative and self assertion leads to personal achievement. These people respect individual actions and personal responsibility and they crave for a considerable degree of freedom in their personal lives. On the contrary, members of high context cultures prefer doing things collectively. They assert membership in organizations, groups and teams. They promote group values, advocate for group duties, and decisions (Jennifer, 2003). They do not value individualism because they believe it nurtures competition and disagreement instead of agreement. In Socialist countries like Asian, self assertion and individual decisions are not allowed. Any individual who comes up with his or her own decisions is condemned. In china, all leaders prefer consultative leadership as opposed to autocratic. In these countries, the views of the people concerned with the matter of discussion must be sought before arriving at any decision (Guffey, Rogin,  Rhodes, 2009).

There are cultures which are quite complicated and cannot be classified as either individualistic or group oriented. A good example is Canadians. Those who originated from Asia are more or less group oriented while those who originated from Europe are a quite individualistic.

Formality People from some cultures do not value tradition, ceremony, and social rules as compared to others. An example of a community which is informal is North America. Their modes of dressing are casual and call each other with their first names. Because they lack formality, they are more direct in their dealings and go direct to the point (Jennifer, 2003). They believe that being indirect wastes a lot of time and in this society time is highly valued. In countries like Japan and Mexico, the communities are so formal and in cases of a business meetings, the routine activities like handshakes, coffee, and expansive conversation about anything takes the center stage before getting down to the business of the day (Deborah, 2004).

In other countries like Arab countries, there is need to establish friendship before engaging in any business dealings. In western countries, people are less concerned with social status of and the appearance of power. People are not just respected because they are rich, hold high position in the society, are senior, or are aged. However, in most Asian communities, these attributes are valued are to be respected (Han, Epp, Lee,  Hasjim, 2008).

Communication style Styles of communication differ between high and low context cultures in terms of words. In North America and Germany, words are valued more so in contracts and negotiations. People from high context cultures emphasizes on the surrounding context more than the words during negotiations. Low context culture takes issues directly, for example a contract would mean a formal statement expressing the intention to build a business for the future while people from high context societies will view it as a statement of intention and assume that possible changes can be made as the project progress (Guffey, Rogin,  Rhodes, 2009). Mexicans on the other hand may view contracts as artistic exercises of what can be achieved under ideal situation. Arabs do not believe on contracts but value spoken words.

North Americans take words the way they are while Latin Americans like playing around with the words. Arabs and South Americans apply poems in their talking that may mean another thing if taken literally. Nigerians speak quietly but clearly while Germans are direct in their speaking but are always understated (Verhelst, 1994).

In communication styles, North Americans speak directly and fear ambiguousness, and do no believe in people who speak with hidden meaning, or those who are too secretive. They also loath silence and are generally impatient. Western cultures have adopted languages that use letters describing the sounds of words while Asian languages are founded on pictographic standing for the meanings of words. Asian alphabets are quite complicated as compared to western alphabet and as a result they are said to have higher aptitude in the discrimination of visual patterns (Jennifer, 2003).

Culture
Each and every country or even a region within a country has a distinct universal tradition, shared experience, or learning. The shared background is what constitutes the culture of a community, region or even a country. Culture can be described as a complicated system of values, characters, morals, and customs which is shared by a community. Through culture people learn how to behave and it also guides their responses. Culture operates as a powerful tool that regulates the way people think and behave. Since humans are thinking beings, they are extremely bendable and have the capacity to undergo phenomenal change (Deborah, 2004).

In the world, there are different types of culture. The natural environment has a great impact on the lifestyles of the people living in that particular region and this shapes the culture. Different cultures in the world are products of mindsets of people living in different parts of the world. Culture has been found to be very important in the society. Through the culture, a community gains its identity, develops a character and personality of its own because of the culture of the people (Jennifer, 2003).Culture is shared by different members of the society and it is transmitted from one generation to another. For culture to be passed from one generation to the next, it has to be transformed into signs and symbols. Some of the symbols of culture are language, art, and religion (Guffey, Rogin,  Rhodes, 2009).

Culture also acts as a bond that binds the people of a region or a community together. It is the only common bond that draws the people forming a community together. The customs and heritage that are upheld by members of the community, the events that they celebrate, their dressing styles, the food they eat, and most importantly the cultural values they stick to, brings them together. Culture can also be viewed as a system of social control where people share their standards and traits. The cultural values are the basis for one s life. They impact a person s ideas and philosophies of life. The value of culture is based on the fact that it connects people and their value systems (Guffey, Rogin,  Rhodes, 2009).

Types of culture
Masculine-feminine culture it involves the study of masculine and feminine types of society which is different from one another. In masculine cultures the tasks performed by men and women are separated. This culture also promotes ambitiousness and competition. The result is considered as the goal of the work. In feminine cultures, what is considered so important is the emotional connection between people, care for the members of the community, and the individual person and his existence. As opposed to masculine cultures, feminine cultures cherish the feeling of togetherness and humility (Deborah, 2004).

The second type of culture is based on the social framework. It consists of high and low context cultures. An example of a country with low context culture is Canada. Its leadership is based on memorandum, announcements, position papers, and other official forms of communication to express their positions on the issues. Canadian supervisors may hide information so as to make them appear professional and also as a method of pleading with their employees to accept their decisions and plans. These cultures also tend to be more individualistic in their operations (Jennifer, 2003).High context cultures like Japan tends to be collectivistic. These cultures prefer non verbal forms of communication and refinement as opposed to being open. These cultures are extraordinarily courteous which matches indirect, refined nature of interpersonal communication. They communicate with a lot of ambiguity and obscurity. Interpersonal communication serves to avoid frightening the face of the communicating partner. Through this type of communication, the unspoken information may be very important than the spoken one (Young, 1988).

Culture can also be based on power. Under this, there are hierarchical and democratic cultures. In democratic culture the power is spread equally among the people and this allows for the free flow of information. Despite the nature of their jobs, workers in democratic cultures regard themselves as colleagues with distinct responsibilities. Such culture is found in North America where people are not identified by position or command and respect is applied equally. In an organizational setting, ideas, suggestions, and complaints are conveyed by any person to anyone to any direction (Guffey, Rogin,  Rhodes, 2009).

Brazilian cultures value individualism because of hard economic situations. These results in a hierarchical culture which does not respect the value of equality as compared to that observed in democratic cultures. The leadership style in this culture is aristocratic. People of high status create authoritative gap between them and those of low ranks. The nature of power discourages the flow of information from the lower level to the top. Information relayed from low levels is delayed on the way before reaching the decision maker who is at the top (Guffey, Rogin,  Rhodes, 2009).

How to improve intercultural environment
Intercultural environment can be improved through understanding of different cultures and their styles of communication. There are various forms of communication which includes verbal, non verbal and electronic communications (Deborah, 2004).  Non verbal communication is considered very crucial in intercultural communication. It includes eye contact, facial expression, and gestures.

North Americans are known to apply eye contact in face to face conversations, which is also interpreted as a show of interest and respect. Body gestures are translated differently among cultures. In North America, nodding head up and down means yes while in Kuwait.

Communication is a very complex process that involves a sender sending his intended message to the receiver who is supposed to draw the intended meaning from the information. The sender knows exactly what he wants the receiver to understand but the receiver relies on the information relayed by the sender to make his meaning which may even be different from the intended meaning. Sender-Message-Receiver (SMR) is concerned with the sender of the message, the message itself and the receiver. This model is credited with both advantages and disadvantages. In the context of this paper, I am going to explore SMR as a communication model and examine some of its limitations as an analytical tool.

Sender-Message-Receiver (SMR)
Communication as a process can be defined as the exchange of information between two or more parties. Information exchange can be facilitated by mediums like the radio, telephone, and television among others. The process of communication is based on the assumption that the receiver will interpret the message in accordance to the senders intentions. This communication models come with a variety of strengths as well as weaknesses. It is credited with having the ability of representing communication practices but does not seem to take into consideration the relationship that exists between context, communication as well as cultural literacy. The transmission model considers the sender, the message and the receiver in describing the communication model. When we base ourselves on this model, then communication is deemed to have occurred if a message is sent by the sender to the receiver who then receives it. This is the model of communication that is referred to as Sender-Message-Receiver (SMR) model (McQuail  Windahl, 1993).

SMR describe information flow in the course of communication. The sender in this model comes up with a message which he places on a given medium with the hope that the intended receiver is bound to interpret it according to his intentions. In this model, the sender turns his thought into communication which is encoded in way that others will understand. The point being communicated should be clear to enable the receiver understand the meaning. Clarity of the point will go a long way in increasing the possibility that the receiver will understand the communication intended by the sender (Inglis, 1990). The information need to be organized in a logical manner that will ensure that the receiver comes to the conclusion intended by the sender. The sender may employ the use of words as well as pictures in a bid to ensure that his message is clear in the mind of the receiver. A sender should ensure that the message can be understood by the intended receiver and it should be placed or communicated in a place where he is most likely to receive it (Fiske, 1982).

One limitation of this model is that the sender is responsible for the decisions concerning the message and the receiver plays a rather passive role of receiving the message as opposed to engaging in the communication process actively. This kind of communication seems to be one sided as opposed to two sided communication which should be the case. There is a possibility of unintentional communication, such as those arising out of body language (Inglis, 1990, p. 157). There is even the possibility of sending the message to the wrong person if the sender is not clear enough concerning his intended recipient. The message usually reaches the receiver as it was sent by the sender and he needs to figure out his understanding of the messages by the words, images and sounds he hears and sees. This makes the receiver vulnerable to having his own understanding of the message, which in some cases may be different from what the sender intended to communicate. One message may be understood differently by different people. The receivers mood may also affect the manner in which he understands the message an example is when the recipient is in bad moods, he is most likely to understand the message ion a negative manner (Carey, 1989).

Since this model relies on a linear transmission model, it is not possible to get feedback from the receiver of the message. Feedback is very important to enable the sender know whether the message was understood in the manner he had intended and make adjustments if necessary. This model gives no room for context. Contextual frame is very necessary if we make sense out of things regardless of whether they are cultural, political social, historical or other (Inglis, 1990). There is a likelihood of communication breaking down as a result of cultural misunderstanding something implicit in a given culture may be different in another. The context within which something is said is bound to influence the meaning that can be understood from it. A communication breakdown arises when we communicate with members of different cultural groups without considering the fact that we do not share a common culture. Contextual frame influences the manner in which we communicate an example is when we are told about the death of a person, we are not expected to laugh (McQuail  Windahl, 1993, p. 100).

The relationship between individuals is also likely to influence the manner in which we communicate. A worker may be very free with fellow workmates than would be the case with his boss. There is a characteristic keenness that arises when we are communicating with people we consider experts or our superiors than is the case with the others. We communicate in a different way with members of the opposite sex, though this greatly depends on the purpose of such communication. Age-gap influences our manner of communication in the sense that when communicating with children we are bound to be a bit authoritative (Fiske, 1982).

This model fails to take into consideration the communication medium employed. The medium plays a very important role in the communication process and should thus be chosen carefully. The receiver may determine our intentions by basing himself on the medium chosen. Some receivers have preferences for the medium. Friendly letters are best when hand written as this shows some dedication while business letters ought to be typed to show that they are not personal. Some mediums are chosen because they are more practical depending on the message being transmitted (Carey, 1989).

SMR model fails to accurately reflect the complex characteristic of communication. It does not give the receiver a good opportunity to construct meanings which is very important for any communication to be considered successful. It does not take into consideration, the purpose as well as the context of the communication. It fails to determine the relationship that exists between the communicating parties and the importance of the medium chosen for the purpose of communication. It adopts the linear system which is not able to accurately represent the complex nature of communication.